This evidence report is based on the key findings of collated sources of evidence on the international mobility of researchers, especially in relation to their entry to the UK, published between 2010 and 2024.
The aim of this report is to centralise the existing evidence on international mobility, showing impacts and trends as well as gaps in current knowledge.
Key findings tell us of the importance of international mobility to researchers, countries and organisations, and may give useful pointers for the continued development of the UK’s strategies to attract and collaborate with international researchers.
This evidence base is intended to inform and stimulate further conversations to shape policy on international researcher mobility and to identify priority areas for future evidence gathering.
This report was first published in 2022. In subsequent annual updates, additional evidence has been added that was published over the last year. The report has the same structure, and the new evidence has been spread throughout the report to create this updated version.
This report has been formed with contributions from across governmental departments and with the input of organisations from across the research and innovation sector.
For more details about how this report was created and for definitions of all terms used, please see the Methodology section. Sources for each reference are provided which give further detail on methodologies and any specific limitations. The section on Limitations of the evidence base includes some observations on challenges in measuring impact, variation in definitions used in different studies, and limited sample sizes.
We welcome suggestions for additional relevant evidence, recent or forthcoming, to include in this report. If you wish to share any suggestions or feedback on this report email globalmobility@ukri.org
2024 update
Since the first publication of this evidence report in 2022, there continue to be changes to the UK research and innovation (R&I) landscape. This includes the UK government’s shift towards a missions-led approach which recognises a central role for research and innovation in achieving these missions, with record investment for Research and Development in the Autumn Budget 2024.
The UK government’s Invest 2035 strategy, due to be published in early 2025, also identifies the UK’s ‘high-quality research institutions and innovative firms’ as a key strength, and highlights the essential role of research and innovation in driving growth.
In 2023, the UK agreed to associate with the EU’s research and innovation programme Horizon Europe. This development was warmly welcomed by the research sector as a means to ensure that the UK can build on its long track record of mutually beneficial participation in previous EU schemes and to maximise the opportunities that membership of Horizon Europe provides. The Autumn Budget 2024 includes fully funding the UK’s association with Horizon Europe ‘providing scientists and innovators access to the world’s largest collaborative funding scheme’.
The UK government has also signalled its commitment to supporting the development of the European Union’s Research and Innovation Framework Programme 10 (FP10) which will be the successor to the Horizon Europe programme from 2028 onwards.
During 2023, the UK government implemented uplifts to the upfront costs of all visas. From February 2024, a 66% increase in the cost of the Immigration Health Surcharge (IHS), payable at the same time as visa fees, came into effect (UK immigration fees, House of Commons Library). The IHS entitles the visa holder to immediate access to NHS treatment without charge from the date their visa commences (Immigration Health Surcharge (PDF, 292KB). Unlike some other competitor science nations, there is no requirement to pay ongoing health insurance premiums, although a visa holder may continue to contribute to the NHS through taxes (UK immigration fees).
Changes to the UK government’s visa offer during 2024 have also included an increase in the salary requirement for the Skilled Worker visa, as well as restricting international student visa holders and others from bringing dependents (Research briefing, House of Commons Library).
In 2023, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Indicators of Talent Attractiveness (ITA) ranked the UK as seventh amongst OECD countries in its capacity to attract and retain talented workers (having ranked in 16th place in 2013). The Global Talent Competitiveness Index 2023 (GTCI) ranked the UK in 10th place for the second year running.
In this iteration of the evidence report, UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) have added new evidence on the experiences of international researchers with protected characteristics and caregivers (see What makes the UK attractive section) following an evidence gathering exercise on challenges encountered in relation to the UK immigration system.
New evidence on the contribution of international postgraduate students to the UK’s research and development ecosystem (see Impact of International Mobility and Collaboration section) has also been incorporated. UKRI contributed to the funding for this research to address evidence gaps identified in an earlier version of this report.
The importance of international mobility
The benefits of international mobility for countries and research organisations are well evidenced, and to match the UK’s ambitions for research and innovation, the UK must retain and extend its position as a collaborator and destination of choice.
By building a reputation as the go-to research partner of choice, the UK will also supercharge its domestic research by attracting greater levels of foreign investment and talent (The UK’s role in global research: how the UK can live up to its place in the world (PDF, 418KB)). This highlights how important it is for the UK to maintain a competitive talent offer.
The prestigious reputation of the UK’s research organisations also plays a significant role in attracting international researchers (Highly skilled migration and the negotiation of immigration policy: non-EEA postgraduate students and academic staff at English universities), along with the highly skilled technician workforce who provide essential support to research (Impact of Brexit on the technical workforce at Russell Group universities).
The UK is seen to provide international researchers with transparent and merit-based career progression, scoring above average in comparison to other European countries in terms of the career opportunities offered to academics (MORE4 study).
However, as the UK government’s Invest 2035 strategy indicates, to maximise the social and economic benefits of our investment in research and innovation across all parts of the UK, there is the need for a sector that is able to attract, retain and grow a workforce with the right skills and in the right numbers.
Introduction
The UK research population has been steadily rising over the last ten years. It will need to continue to grow to meet its research ambitions by 2030, which is unlikely to be possible through domestic supply alone.
Whilst life in the UK appears to be an attractive proposition for international researchers, it is important that this interest is converted into relocation decisions to realise the UK’s ambitions.
Between 2010 and 2019, the UK saw a 23% increase in the total number of full-time equivalent researchers, to a 2010 population of 316,296 individuals, and a 35% increase in the total number of full-time equivalent R&D personnel including technicians and support staff, to a 2019 population of 475,093 individuals (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development).
Looking specifically at the employment of higher education (HE) staff, data from December 2022 shows a total of 240,420 academic staff working in the HE sector, with an increase in the number of UK and non-EU nationality academic staff (excluding atypical staff) and a decrease in the number of EU nationals compared to the year prior. Data from the 2018 to 2019 to 2022 to 2023 period shows an annual increase in the number of non-EU nationality academic staff and an annual decrease in the number of EU nationality academic staff. It should be noted that these figures do not include all employees involved in research and development activities undertaken by Higher Education institutions, for example technicians, who are classified as non-academic staff as well as atypical staff. Atypical staff refers here to ‘those whose working arrangements are not permanent, involve complex employment relationships and/or involve work away from the supervision of the normal work provider’ (Higher Education Staff Statistics: UK, 2022/23 | HESA).
Demographics of the researcher workforce and mobility patterns
International mobility can be defined in several different ways, as international experiences can vary by duration, purpose, the number and frequency of moves, and when moves occur within a researcher’s career. Studies also take different approaches to the researcher groups analysed, as well as whether movements are considered relative to the country of birth or to other reference points such as nationality, country of highest degree and educational attainment, or country of first research publication.
Within the UK-wide survey of the Research and Innovation Workforce 2022 undertaken by the Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) and the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT), an in-depth insight into the research and innovation (R&I) workforce in the UK is given which covers members of both the innovation and research and development workforces. With regards to international mobility specifically, 14% of respondents were non-British citizens and a further 11% held dual citizenship. Figures published by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in 2024 estimate that 17% of all R&D workers are non-UK nationals (Employment in research and development occupations by nationality, selected years 2009 to 2023).
More than half of respondents (52%) to the Research and Innovation Workforce survey reported having worked outside the UK over the course of their career in R&I, and a further 32% had considered doing so. When asked about their plans for the next five years, 57% said that they might strongly consider or already have plans to work outside the UK.
The second iteration of the Research and Innovation Workforce survey was undertaken during 2024, with results due to be published during 2025.
Investment and interventions in the research sector
To attract and retain researchers, the UK government has implemented a range of mobility interventions.
In February 2020, the Global Talent Visa (GTV) was introduced, enabling promising researchers and their teams to obtain long-term visas at speed, including technology and methodology experts. This scheme has since been expanded and improved to widen eligibility. This includes fast-track endorsement for individuals who meet the criteria of having an eligible fellowship, an eligible academic or research appointment, or who are working on a grant from an endorsed funder.
As of January 2025, over 15,000 endorsements have been made by the British Academy, Royal Academy of Engineering, Royal Society, and UKRI for international researchers to apply for the Global Talent Visa in the five-year period since the scheme launched. 89% of individuals applying for endorsement have successfully demonstrated their suitability for the route through the criteria. Individuals have been endorsed to be hosted or employed at over 150 different research organisations across the UK.
Since launching, the scheme continues to be reviewed to ensure that appropriate criteria and processes are in place. A 2024 Home Office evaluation of the visa scheme found that the visa had played a role in making the UK a more attractive place to live and work. Almost half of survey participants (48%) indicated that they would not be living in the UK if the GTV wasn’t available, either choosing to move to a different country (33%) or returning to or staying in their home country (15%). The report also suggests there is more to do in publicising and promoting the GTV and ensuring there is sufficient provision of uncomplicated information available.
Other long-term visa schemes that may be available to international researchers include the High Potential Individual (HPI) visa, the Skilled Worker visa and the Innovator Founder visa.
To support the short-term mobility of international researchers UKRI launched the Government Authorised Exchange (GAE) Future Technology Research and Innovation (FTRI) scheme in April 2024. The FTRI scheme enables UK businesses to sponsor international researchers under a research or training placement for up to two years and interns for short-term work experience for up to one year. This supports the transfer of skills and knowledge, increases collaboration and builds global connections. This is in addition to GAE schemes already available to support short-term mobility via UKRI’s Science, Research and Academia (SRA) scheme and the Sponsored Researchers scheme for higher education institutions (HEI).
The GREAT Talent Campaign launched in 2021 and offers an overview of information about living, moving to, and working in the UK for international research and tech talent. The site is part of a larger campaign focused on international talent attraction.
The Global Talent Network launched in 2023 and supports researchers in the USA and India who are interested in working in the AI, Quantum and Life Sciences sectors in the UK. The network is led by the Department for Business and Trade (DBT). The Invest 2035 strategy highlights the ongoing role for this network in contributing to the UK being ‘the best place in the world for scientists, innovators, and entrepreneurs to live and work.’ In 2024, the UK government also launched the AI Futures Grants scheme to support talented researchers who are early or mid-career to relocate to the UK, including by covering relocation costs.
In October 2020, UKRI also extended eligibility for the doctoral training programme to international students and the UK government introduced the new unsponsored Graduate visa route in summer 2021. A rapid review of the Graduate route undertaken by the Migration Advisory Committee in 2024 found that the route has ‘broadly achieved, and continues to achieve, the objectives set’ by the UK government and recommended its continuation. It should be noted, however, that the review identified a potential ‘significant restriction in future use of the Graduate route’ due to the aforementioned policy change on international students bringing dependents.
UKRI continues to deliver a broad portfolio of work to support the development of a thriving research culture within the UK which is inclusive of a diversity of people, places and ideas. This includes supporting R&I community adoption of narrative CVs which enable people and teams to evidence a wider range of skills and experience than a traditional academic CV. UKRI’s talent investment portfolio also supports domestic and international research careers at a variety of stages.
International mobility and collaboration
The studies in this evidence report all suggest that international mobility and collaboration is essential to research and innovation. International collaboration is key to career development and enables researchers to:
- access additional, often specific, expertise, data, infrastructure, and resources
- gain new perspectives on research
- build relationships with others in the field
Indeed, a survey of more than 1,200 fellowship and grant recipients from the UK National Academies found that international collaboration and mobility is integral to life as an active researcher across all disciplines and at all career stages (The role of international collaboration and mobility in research). The study also noted that short and long-term international mobility are common in the careers of researchers and are undertaken for a variety of reasons.
The study found that, as well as attending conferences, researchers make short-term international trips, of less than a year, to visit collaborators, either established or potential, and to carry out independent research. Short-term trips are considered to be becoming more frequent as part of the role of a researcher. More than half of respondents (58%) reported that at some point during their career they had spent a sustained period of a year or more working abroad. This was most commonly reported as something which participants had undertaken at post-doctoral stage (51%).
Impacts of global mobility and collaboration on researchers
The impact of global mobility and collaboration on a researcher can be significant. The More4 study also found that over 80% of survey respondents said their international contacts and network strongly increased or increased as a result of their entire mobility experience. Over 75% of survey respondents said their advanced research skills increased or strongly increased as a result of their entire mobility experience. Respondents also perceived strong positive effects on recognition in the research community, career progression and the quality and quantity of research outputs.
The More4 study identified the following increased and strongly increased effects of entire mobility experience on the research career in 2019, for the EU28 member states:
- international contacts or network (83%)
- advanced research skills (77%)
- recognition in the research community (73%)
- quality of output (72%)
- overall career progression (71%)
- quantity of output (71%)
- collaboration with other (sub)fields of research (70%)
- number of co-authored publications (68%)
- job options in academia (61%)
- ability to obtain competitive funding for basic research (59%)
- national contact or network (56%)
- quality of life of you or your family (55%)
- understanding or applying Open Science approaches (53%)
- progress in salary and financial conditions (50%)
- job options outside academia (46%)
Source: page 261 of the MORE4 Europe study Support data collection and analysis concerning mobility patterns and career paths of researchers, survey on researchers in European Higher Education Institutions, 2021
What makes the UK attractive
Motives for PhD student and researcher mobility
The drivers of mobility for researchers and PhD students differ slightly. Researchers appear to be career-oriented and value networking, autonomy, and opportunities for development over funding opportunities and pay. PhD students are more opportunity-oriented and focus on the availability of funding and positions.
The numbers show major contributing motives for researcher mobility post-PhD within the EU (MORE4 study):
- international networking (87%)
- research autonomy (85%)
- working with leading scientists (83%)
- career progression (81%)
- access to research facilities and equipment (74%)
The numbers below show major contributing motives indicated for PhD researcher mobility within the EU (MORE4 study):
- availability of research funding (80%)
- availability of suitable PhD positions (78%)
- international networking (75%)
- working with leading scientists (74%)
- research autonomy (73%)
Why the UK is an attractive place for researchers and scientists
A Home Office evidence review (PDF, 1.8MB) found the following motivations and drivers for international researchers and scientists are significant when choosing a destination country. Evidence on the extent to which the UK meets these drivers is presented below.
Career opportunities
A large-scale study of EU researchers involving over 2700 mobile researchers found that career progression was the most commonly cited single reason for international mobility among PhD students and researchers in all post-PhD career stage within Europe. The MORE4 study follows earlier surveys in identifying research funding and the availability of positions as the largest barriers to researcher mobility. It terms these areas ‘enablers of attractiveness’ which, if improved, will support greater international mobility for those interested in it.
A survey of international academics from 17 countries published in 2010 also found that higher salaries played an important part in attracting highly qualified academics from abroad (The Early Career Paths and Employment Conditions of the Academic Profession in 17 Countries). In a 2022 study, pay or benefits was also a factor cited by half of those who would consider working outside the UK in the next five years within the UK research and innovation workforce (UK-wide survey of the Research and Innovation Workforce 2022).
The UK generally scores well in terms of career progression in comparison to other European countries. A MORE4 study found that 80.4% of researchers surveyed agreed that career progression is sufficiently merit-based in the UK and 81.2% of researchers suggested that career paths are transparent.
Research infrastructure
A large survey of researchers working in higher education in countries around the world found that funding from research organisations is perceived to be the most important enabling factor for researchers who move to live abroad (International Movement and Science: A survey of researchers by the Together Science Can campaign).
Analysis of small-scale case studies of relocating academic staff found that the prestigious reputation of the UK’s research organisations was a significant factor behind choosing the UK to migrate to for work-related reasons (Highly skilled migration and the negotiation of immigration policy: non-EEA postgraduate students and academic staff at English universities).
A factor identified by respondents in a Home office evaluation involving Global Talent visa holders was the attractiveness of certain industries within the UK which were described as ‘hubs for innovation’ (Global Talent visa evaluation: Wave 2 report).
High-quality peers and the opportunity to build networks and collaborative relationships
The quality of the working conditions influencing scientific productivity, such as working with leading researchers and long-term career perspectives (for instance, a tenure track model), research autonomy and the balance between teaching and research, are the main drivers of attractiveness of jobs in research: factors that drive the decision of researchers to become mobile.
The MORE2 study found that researchers were willing to offset some financial benefits, such as pay, in exchange for better quality working conditions that support scientific productivity. These conditions were typically linked to working with leading scientists, long-term career perspectives, research autonomy and the balance between teaching and research.
The importance of working conditions and research culture has also been identified in a Cancer Research UK report, highlighting the need for ‘increasing stability, flexibility and inclusivity’ in research careers to continue to attract and help retain a diverse research workforce (Strengthening the UK research workforce to beat cancer).
Findings from a study with fellows and grant recipients of the National Academies highlighted that participants’ reasons for short-term travel commonly included travelling to meet collaborators and to develop networks (The role of international collaboration and mobility in research).
Moreover, the UK has a highly skilled technical workforce who provide essential support to research and the ability to work with the best technicians is an attractive prospect to researchers. In Russell Group universities, most technicians (64%) are skilled to NQF level 6 or above with 88% of EU technicians and 89% of non-EU technicians holding this higher level of qualification (Impact of Brexit on the technical workforce at Russell Group universities).
Evidence on barriers to mobility
To continue to attract international researchers to the UK, current evidence identifies a range of barriers experienced by individuals and organisations and suggests the following areas could be improved to enhance the UK’s offer to international researchers.
Immigration system and visas
Evidence gathering pieces carried out by R&D sector organisations have identified that upfront costs in the UK visa system (UK science and immigration: why the UK needs an internationally competitive visa offer) and the length of the UK visa process (International Movement and Science: A survey of researchers by the Together Science Can campaign) are primary barriers to relocation for researchers. Internationally, differences in entitlements and immigration rules in destination countries may influence researcher mobility.
Administrative challenges
The length of the visa process in the UK presents an issue for many researchers, particularly for early career researchers. A quarter of researchers from Africa and Asia report difficulties in obtaining a visa that affect relocation, as well as being ‘more likely to report visa-related challenges related to visiting other countries than were their colleagues with a European or North American nationality’ (International Movement and Science: A survey of researchers by the Together Science Can campaign).
Evidence has also indicated that one of the most frequent difficulties experienced by international researchers and scientists was the complexity and length of application forms (International Movement and Science: A survey of researchers by the Together Science Can campaign).
A study by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport, and Culture on mobility flows of researchers in the context of the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions showed that the ‘ease or difficulty in securing work and residence permits can influence incoming mobility flows’. Additionally, ‘excessive bureaucracy was identified as one of the key factors curbing researchers’ mobility’.
With regards to shorter term mobility arrangements, the Royal Society developed a report which found that the application process for a Visitor visa specifically can be complex. The report also noted issues with timelines for international researchers, stating ‘delays in the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), required for researchers of certain nationalities coming to the UK to work in areas deemed sensitive, which is another issue of visa timelines. One interviewee remarked that, for them, the service standard was almost always met, but that ATAS was the single biggest cause of delays’.
For further discussion on ATAS, please see the Methodology section.
Visa fees and immigration costs
In 2023, the UK government implemented uplifts to the upfront costs of all its visas. These upfront costs can include application fees, fees for dependents, the Immigration Health Surcharge (which is charged upfront for each visa year applied for) and may include costs associated with applying for citizenship. Prior to the latest increase, analysis by the Royal Society in 2019 and 2021 had highlighted that upfront UK visa costs were a barrier to attracting international talent (UK science and immigration: why the UK needs an internationally competitive visa offer).
The 2024 Royal Society analysis of visa costs (PDF, 275KB) found that ‘total upfront costs are higher in the UK than all other countries in the analysis’. Since 2019, total upfront immigration costs in the UK have increased by up to 126%, depending on the visa type. Across the study group of 18 ‘leading science nations’, UK costs are six to eight times higher than the international average when included in the calculation of upfront visa costs, and up to 17 times higher when the UK is excluded from this calculation.
The 2024 analysis found that ‘the biggest upfront cost component in the UK is in the Immigration Health Surcharge (IHS) which in February 2024 increased by 66%, from £624 to £1,035’ per person per year of visa applied for. When including the upfront IHS costs, the GTV is ‘the most expensive visa’ in comparison with similar research visa routes offered by competitor science nations, when comparing both upfront the costs for an applicant as well as total upfront costs, paid by both applicant and employer. For a family of four to come to the UK, including the main GTV holder and three dependents, the upfront costs are now £20,974 for a five-year visa.
A Wellcome Trust 2020 report indicated that such costs are making the UK less attractive compared to its competitors (The UK’s role in global research: how the UK can live up to its place in the world). The first Home Office Global Talent visa evaluation report, published in 2022, also found that the annual IHS was not viewed to be as fair as other fees, while costs for dependants were thought to be too high. These could present a barrier to applications.
A 2024 report by Cancer Research UK highlights the impact that changes to the UK immigration system, including increasing costs, are having on the recruitment of research talent (Impact of UK Immigration System Changes on Cancer Research: Evidence and analysis from Cancer Research UK Institutes). This includes a 44% increase in cost to recruit the same number of posts at Cancer Research Institutes in 2023 to 2024 as in 2022 to 2023. Associated challenges include unfilled roles and delays to research projects, as well as less money directly available for research costs as a result, including for research groups and specialist facilities.
A rapid-fire informal survey of 50 research organisations carried out by UKRI in July 2024 found that one-third of respondents had changed their policy stance since the latest IHS upfront cost increase in relation to whether or how their organisation contributed towards meeting these costs.
Experiences of the UK immigration system for different groups
A UKRI-commissioned study carried out in 2024 by the EDI Caucus found that international researchers with protected characteristics and caregivers are likely to experience disproportionate challenges in relation to the UK visa system, including the costs and complexities of the system.
The data showed that ‘researchers from racial minorities, those with disabilities, and women were particularly affected, encountering additional hurdles in terms of financial support, access to services, career progression, and institutional biases.’ These challenges significantly impact the international mobility and career advancement of these researchers, resulting in a less diverse and inclusive research environment.
UK visa rejections lack clarity and often vary, posing potential inconsistencies and perceived bias, with evidence highlighting a notable impact on African and Asian applicants. Difficulties in the ability of applicants from these continents to obtain a visa is also referenced above in Administrative challenges.
Visa costs were identified as potentially having a disproportionate impact on researchers from lower income countries and for researchers who are single parents or have larger families. The study also highlighted that the 2023 Home Office Equality Impact Assessment identified that the upfront cost increase in the IHS could have a higher negative impact on; women over men (due to the existing gender pay gap), individuals with disabilities, and younger individuals (who are both more likely to earn lower annual incomes). Complexities at different stages of the process were highlighted, as well as challenges in accessing support. (EDI Caucus, forthcoming).
Visa costs are noted as being a particular barrier to the success of international postgraduate research students including those seeking to gain a PhD or masters qualification primarily through research, alongside visa restrictions in working hours. (Powering the engine: The non-financial contribution of international postgraduate students to the UK).
An analysis by Cancer Research UK highlights that ‘a postdoc at the CRUK Manchester or Scotland Institutes would now spend 10% of their total income for a three-year position on immigration costs to bring three family members.’ (Impact of UK immigration system changes on cancer research).
Funding
The MORE studies consistently indicate that research funding is perceived to be one of the biggest barriers to mobility. In 2019, the UK scored just below the EU average for researchers’ individual satisfaction on the availability of research funding, significantly lagging behind Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands (MORE4, main study). It should be noted that this refers to the period before the UK joined the Horizon Europe programme.
MORE4 data also suggests that both PhD students and researchers perceive funding for mobility and finding a suitable position to be significant mobility barriers.
Barriers to living in the UK
Findings from DSIT’s UK-wide survey of the R&I workforce in 2022 show that respondents with non-British citizenship viewed the biggest barriers to living in the UK to be the following:
- level of pay and benefits, or maintaining your standard of living (30%)
- immigration and visa requirements (24%)
- finding adequate accommodation (15%)
- availability of suitable opportunities to advance your career (14%)
- working hours (14%)
- transfer of pension or other benefits (12%)
- finding suitable care or education for dependents (11%)
- ability of family members to live or work in the UK (11%)
- lack of research facilities or infrastructure (10%)
- workplace discrimination and harassment (10%)
- other financial consideration, including cost of relocation (10%)
- UK culture (9%)
- maintaining contact with your professional network (6%)
- qualification requirements (2%)
- language requirements (1%)
Twenty five percent responded that nothing had made it difficult for them to work in the UK.
The earlier MORE4 study found that single researchers and those without children are more likely to be mobile than those in a couple or with children. A larger proportion of researchers surveyed in MORE4 cited family reasons as a potential or actual barrier to international mobility than in previous survey.
As noted, the 2024 EDI Caucus study on barriers to diversity within the research and innovation sector, focusing on challenges in the immigration system, found that ‘researchers from racial minorities, those with disabilities, and women were particularly affected’ with challenges to accessing services experienced including in accessing healthcare and support, and financial challenges identified included the impact of childcare costs (EDI Caucus, forthcoming).
An evidence gathering exercise in 2023 by the Campaign for Science and Engineering highlights that ‘more needs to be done to create a welcoming environment to attract and retain talent’ (The Skills Opportunity: Building a more innovative UK). This includes ‘considerations around the quality of life, such as affordability of housing, schools, infrastructure, and cultural support, amongst others.’
Uncertainty experienced by EU researchers has been identified as a factor influencing some to return to their home country (The Pivotal Role of EU Research Diasporas in EU-UK Scientific and Diplomatic Relations). The increasing difficulty of recruiting EU/EAA researchers has also been noted as a challenge post-Brexit (Strengthening the UK Research Workforce to Beat Cancer (PDF, 1.1MB)).
The impact of an unwelcoming environment, including due to ‘political rhetoric’, has also been identified as a barrier to the success of international postgraduate research students. (Powering the engine: The non-financial contribution of international postgraduate students to the UK).
In a 2024 Home Office evaluation, Global Talent Visa holders identified challenges to living in the UK linked to housing and the cost of living, however it also found that the majority of respondents were planning to settle in the UK, with one of the reasons given including due to ‘the UK’s tolerance towards foreigners, multi-cultural identify and sense of fairness.’
Barriers and opportunities facing R&D-intensive businesses recruiting internationally
People working in research-related roles in business tend to be less well-defined and more difficult to reach. Therefore, most analysis has focused on academic researchers, despite a larger, and growing proportion of UK researchers who work in businesses.
In recognition of this gap, in 2023 UKRI commissioned an evidence gathering exercise to understand how R&D-intensive businesses interact with the UK immigration system, as well as identifying the barriers and opportunities they face. Key findings of this evidence gathering exercise are laid out in the following section.
Recruitment practices of R&D-intensive businesses
R&D businesses do consider themselves to be international in their recruitment practices, to the point where some believe their organisation relies on the ability to bring in international talent.
Businesses hire internationally for some of the same reasons as public sector research organisations, including to access a larger pool of specialist skills and a diversity of experiences.
They also hire for some reasons that are more specific to industry:
- expanded business networks for those that operate across multiple countries
- representativeness of client base
Businesses tend to seek individuals with highly specialised technical skills that they feel are challenging to secure from the domestic workforce, with focus predominantly on recruiting senior-level employees who are felt to bring specific experience and expertise.
Experiences of R&D-intensive businesses when using the immigration system
Businesses are divided as to whether the UK’s immigration system meets the needs of their organisation, but among all, there is widespread agreement that overseas recruitment is a significant task for their HR or relevant teams and one that involves a large amount of administrative burden and liaison with candidates. This is exacerbated by a perception by businesses taking part in the study that the Home Office lacks due process to make these procedures streamlined (for example, a single point of contact).
Barriers to mobility when recruiting staff are broadly similar to those in the public sector:
- time to complete process and administrative burden (37%)
- cost of recruitment (36%)
- complexity, including clear information (35%)
- costs to individuals (19%)
The cost of sponsoring individuals across visa types is felt to be a real strain. Smaller businesses in particular feel hindered by the cost and time required and, as a result, sometimes feel the need to make choices about where to advertise jobs.
There is also concern over the long lead time for applicants from overseas, whereby candidates are awaiting results for several months and often drop out of the process in the meantime. 74% of 49 businesses noted the IHS specifically impacted their ability to recruit international researchers.
Among all businesses sampled, there is felt to be a palpable decrease in the degree to which the UK is seen as an appealing place to live and move. A number attribute this to changes post-Brexit, namely, that the UK is thought to be less accessible, particularly but not exclusively for candidates from the EU.
Smaller businesses in particular can struggle to navigate the immigration system without resorting to expensive external advice.
A 2023 evidence gathering exercise by the Campaign for Science and Engineering also found that recruiting international talent is costly and complex, in relation to the resource and expertise needed to navigate the immigration system. This is noted as impacting smaller businesses who may have fewer administrative or financial resources and who may be less likely to recruit skilled international talent as a result.
Impact of international mobility and collaboration
In addition to improving the attractiveness of the UK to international researchers, it is important to acknowledge the significant impact that international mobility and collaboration have on research organisations and countries. One of the most widely recognised indicators of the impact of research is the field-weighted citation impact (FWCI) of research publications. See Limitations of the evidence base for a discussion of this metric.
There is evidence that international collaboration is positively correlated to the citation impact of research publications, and FWCI is sometimes used as a proxy for measuring the impact of international mobility and collaboration (The benefits of scientific mobility and international collaboration). In addition ‘evidence shows that research involving at least one international partner has greater impact than those with only national collaborators’ (The UK’s role in global research: how the UK can live up to its place in the world, (PDF, 418KB)).
In 2020, nearly 60% of UK publications were the result of international collaboration and since 2010 the UK has had a larger proportion of its research among the most widely cited in the world than any other comparator (International Comparison of the Research Base 2022).
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) concluded that publications by incoming researchers to the UK have a 13% higher FWCI than those of UK-based researchers who are not mobile. However, the FWCI of researchers who return to the UK and of researchers who leave the UK for another country does not differ significantly from those who stay in the UK. The OECD also notes that researchers who stay in their home country are more likely to publish in journals deemed to be of lower prestige (OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard).
A 2024 UKRI- commissioned literature review identified both ‘direct benefits’ to research and innovation for organisations involved in international collaboration (such as ‘better bibliometric research outputs’ and ‘talent development’), as well as broader benefits including ‘knowledge spillovers, societal and reputational benefits, national competitiveness and economic growth’ (Economic Benefits of International Collaboration in Research, Development and Innovation).
The review considers the impact of international collaboration relative to domestic collaboration or no collaboration and explores the impact resulting from international collaboration between different types of organisations. For example, ‘international collaborations between universities and businesses (U2B) and between businesses (B2B) can lead to better outcomes than domestic partnerships, such as higher levels of patenting activity, business growth, profitability, and innovation performance’.
Impact of inward and outward mobility on organisations
Mobility, both inward and outward, is a vital tool in developing relationship-building collaborations. The skills and knowledge of mobile and internationally collaborating researchers bring reputational and performance benefits for UK organisations.
Mobility can also offer financial benefits to research organisations. Access to a global talent pool may help institutions hire good quality researchers who match the desired, rare or unique research skills and knowledge (Research Issues in the International Migration of Highly Skilled Workers: A Perspective with Data from the US). This in turn aids in overcoming bottlenecks in research or production, leading to increased economic activity.
A literature review on the economic benefits of international collaboration found it was widely understood that ‘organisations that collaborate internationally tend to perform better because they can access resources (knowledge, talent, data, and infrastructure) that are not available to their domestically focused counterparts.’ This may include access to researchers with specialist skills and diverse knowledge. The next phase of this study will be an empirical analysis of the economic benefits of international collaboration additional to domestic collaboration.
Impact of international mobility and collaboration on countries
Global mobility also creates significant benefits for both host countries and countries of origin.
The risk of brain drain is often used to argue against increased global mobility in research, but this evidence review shows that it is more accurate to talk of brain circulation, as the movement of researchers back and forth helps knowledge to circulate worldwide.
It is not always the case that countries of origin experience a loss, as researchers tend to retain productive links with their home countries and may also return home bringing back additional skills (International mobility of researchers: A review of the literature commissioned by Royal Society).
Increased availability of highly skilled workers and export opportunities for technology can increase R&D and economic activity. However, Regets (2007) suggests that this could also have possible negative consequences, such as a decreased incentive for resident researchers to seek higher skills, and the potential for technology to be transferred to competitors (Research Issues in the International Migration of Highly Skilled Workers: A Perspective with Data from the US).
A literature review on the benefits of international collaboration found that the researchers and organisations most likely to benefit were ‘those with higher research capabilities, absorptive capacity, and innovation novelty’ but that when considering benefits at national level found ‘emerging countries potentially having more to gain from collaborating internationally.’ Furthermore, ‘the more firms within a country engage in international R&D collaboration, the more competitive the country becomes.’
Enabling UK-based researchers to undertake short periods of time overseas is beneficial to the UK’s soft power, helping to establish and reinforce bilateral and multilateral R&I relationships between countries but also beyond (UK Research and Development Roadmap: A response from the British Academy (PDF, 613KB)).
An analysis undertaken by London Economics in 2023 highlights ‘the growing importance of international students to local economies throughout the UK. The report shows the economic benefit of international students rose from £31.3 billion to £41.9 billion between 2018 to 2019, and 2021 to 2022 (The costs and benefits of international higher education students to the UK (PDF, 2.3MB)).
A recent study on the non-financial contribution of international postgraduate research students highlights that they are a ‘crucial part of the success of the UK’s research and development ecosystem.’ This includes in bringing skills and via collaborations which contribute directly to the UK’s research base and publications, as well as in making PhD programmes successful. Through this they also ‘project the UK’s soft power across the globe’ and contribute to the ambition of becoming a science and technology superpower (Powering the engine: The non-financial contribution of international postgraduate students to the UK).
Areas for future research
While this report sets out many of the key dimensions in global mobility, there are areas where there is limited information, and future evidence gathering exercises should aim to help reduce these gaps in evidence. By growing the evidence base in these areas, there is scope to develop a more granular understanding of researcher mobility to the UK, including how this may vary by sector or region, in order to inform future policymaking.
Since the previous iteration, UKRI have conducted an evidence gathering exercise on barriers and challenges in the immigration system for individuals with protected characteristics and caregivers, as well as supported a study on the non-financial contribution of postgraduate research students.
Effect of immigration rules
More recent evidence is needed on the effect of the Home Office immigration rules on international researchers’ attitudes to, and experiences of, mobility, including following the latest changes to UK visa fees and upfront costs for international researchers and their dependents.
An OECD report published in 2015 found that visa restrictions can have statistically negative effects on both scientist flows and collaborations, decreasing them by as much as 50% (Which factors influence the international mobility of research scientists?).
There is also room to explore in more detail how researchers use various UK visa routes in order to understand what is working particularly well, or less well. This could be done through research with UK visa holders, or with people who have experience of more than one visa over time, to compare experiences and views more directly.
During 2025, UKRI will be focusing on gathering evidence on the impact of increased upfront Immigration Health Surcharge (IHS) costs on attracting international talent and on the research and innovation sector as a result.
Demographics and global mobility
Little is known about the demographics of globally mobile researchers, and evidence is needed on the effectiveness of equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI) policies in this area. Research commissioned by UKRI in 2023 has identified a range of challenges, including financial and administrative barriers, experienced by researchers with protected characteristics in navigating the immigration system (EDI Caucus, forthcoming).
Additional research on the effectiveness of particular policies and practices seeking to address financial and administrative barriers to engaging with the immigration system would also support in guiding policy in this area.
Social implications of global mobility
There is a lack of evidence around the social implications of global mobility, both on a personal level for researchers and in terms of research outcomes. Most studies focus on benefits to the economy, or to researchers’ careers or their academic output and forming of new networks. The advantages of mobility have been chiefly assessed in terms of publication, which do not present a full account of the benefits to society that research provides (International mobility of researchers: A review of the literature commissioned by Royal Society).
Research funding schemes
There is limited evidence on the impact research funding schemes have on fostering international mobility and little comparative evidence of how different countries support and promote international mobility (International Comparison of the Research Base 2022).
Global mobility patterns
Future analysis could examine the impact of researchers’ mobility patterns on the success of international collaborations, career progression across career stages and disciplines, or the extent to which short-term mobility is equal to long-term mobility in terms of impact on career progression or recruitment opportunities.
Next steps
This report aims to increase understanding of the global mobility of researchers, including the barriers and motivations to do so, to highlight the impacts of mobility and identify where the gaps in knowledge are. This centralised summary of evidence on global mobility will act as a shared point of reference in the sector, to help provide the basis for evidence-based policy proposals and stances.
UKRI publish an annual update to this evidence report with the aim of providing a succinct snapshot of the current evidence on international mobility, along with a summary of the evidence that assesses how attractive the UK is to international researchers. We encourage you to contact the team if you have any suggestions for evidence to include, or if you have any other feedback.
Limitations of the evidence base
While the evidence used in this report sketches a picture of the international mobility of researchers, the studies included in this summary have some limitations.
Due to the variation in defining international mobility, it is difficult to draw general conclusions about the prevalence of international mobility, and it should be noted that the strength of some studies used in this review is limited.
While the evidence base points to the reported benefits of international mobility and collaboration, it is difficult to quantitatively measure the impact of international mobility on research performance.
While there is evidence to suggest that progression and job opportunities are an important motivation for moving to the UK, the sample sizes of these studies were very small and geographically limited.
It is difficult to quantify the impact that high visa fees, including the IHS, have on attracting and retaining international talent, as to do so, we would require knowledge of individuals who have turned down an offer to come to the UK. UKRI will be working to address gaps in this evidence during 2025.
Similarly, this review did not find many studies that looked at the international mobility of research team members and specialists. For example, technical, or methodological experts, language specialists, professionals in engineering, data science and so on.
The impact of international mobility is difficult to measure, and the most widely used measurement, FWCI, is narrowly defined and not inclusive of the wide range of research outputs and impacts. As a signatory to the 2013 San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA), we are mindful of how inappropriate metrics can give rise to perverse incentives.
Within this report we have primarily focused more on long-term mobility. To help understand the picture for short-term mobility arrangements, the Royal Society published an analysis of short-term visa costs and processes in the UK and other leading science nations.
Methodology
The evidence report is based on literature reviews and data between 2010 and 2024. These sources were identified through online searches, engaging with various organisations for guidance and utilising existing UKRI data providers, such as the Higher Education Statistical Agency (HESA).
It aims to summarise the latest evidence on the above research questions from the identified sources and will be updated as new information and data becomes available. A variety of sources have been used from reputable sources (for example, OECD, EU commission and Elsevier) which are listed above. Any analysis done internally has been quality assured.
Evidence prior to this time period has been removed to ensure that the evidence accurately reflects the landscape. An exception to this rule is if the point made by the evidence source is not specific to that time period, and is useful from a general perspective on R&D mobility.
Definitions
The Immigration Health Surcharge: the surcharge is an upfront cost paid as a part of the visa application and grants the visa holder access to free health services in the UK. The surcharge is calculated based on the length of visa being applied for.
Definitions based on the International Comparative Performance of the UK Research Base report
See the International Comparative Performance of the UK Research Base report
Migratory mobility pattern: researchers who stay abroad or in the UK for two years or more.
Transitory mobility pattern or temporary mobility pattern: researchers who stay abroad or in the UK for less than two years.
Definitions based on OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms
See the OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms
Researchers: professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products processes, methods, and systems, and in the management of the projects concerned.
Research personnel: all persons employed directly on research and development [activities], as well as those providing direct services such as research and development managers, administrators, and clerical staff.
Technicians: persons whose main tasks require technical knowledge and experience in one or more fields of engineering, physical and life sciences, or social sciences and humanities. They participate in research and development (R&D) by performing scientific and technical tasks involving the application of concepts and operational methods, normally under the supervision of researchers. Equivalent staff perform the corresponding R&D tasks under the supervision of researchers in the social sciences and humanities.
Definition derived from What is Field-weighted Citation Impact from Scopus
See What is Field-weighted Citation Impact from Scopus
Field-weighted citation impact: the ratio of the total citations actually received by the denominator’s output, and the total citations that would be expected based on the average of the subject field.
UKRI’s approach to Global Mobility
The UK immigration system must support the attraction, retention, and development of those who lead, undertake and support research and innovation. This includes mobility, inward and outward, for both long-term migration with routes to indefinite leave to remain and short visits for knowledge exchange, conferences, training, and research collaboration. It is important that UKRI enables a diversity of individuals to easily transition not only between roles, but also between institutions, academia, and industry, and across national boundaries.
The UKRI Global Mobility team, as part of the Research and Innovation Culture and Environment team, works to create the conditions to improve the culture and environment of the UK research and innovation system. We do this by synthesising and analysing evidence and effective practices from across the R&I system, to derive insight and to develop interventions, which are then jointly delivered to improve the UK’s R&I culture and environment.
We aim to improve the international and cross-sectoral mobility of researchers and their teams by developing existing schemes, including the Global Talent and short-term visa schemes, and through identifying new opportunities to support career progression, broaden access to skills, and build national and international networks. This includes addressing key barriers to the international mobility of researchers and their teams to ensure the immigration system acts as facilitator to mobility. We are particularly aware of high comparative and upfront costs of UK visa fees and continue to work with the government to improve our approach to attracting global talent to the UK.
A critical part of attracting international research talent to the UK is to clearly communicate what the UK can offer and ensure concise information on the available routes is easily accessible. UKRI continue our engagement efforts to improve awareness of and information on the Global Talent and Temporary Worker Government Authorised Exchange visa routes for UK host organisations, and profile researchers’ own stories of moving to the UK. We are also partners to the UK’s GREAT talent campaign and website to promote and facilitate mobility of research and innovation experts to the UK through providing information on funding and visas in clear language.
UKRI have several mechanisms that facilitate outward mobility, including international fellowships, exchange schemes, and travel grants.
Working with partners on international postgraduate (PGR) student mobility
Recognising the successful work of other organisations in the research sector on international student mobility policy, UKRI will be continuing to take a primarily convening role in international PGR student mobility in this coming year. This includes sharing of information and issues arising in the area and supporting evidence gathering efforts to improve understanding. This year UKRI have also financially supported a Universities UK International commissioned study on the non-financial contribution of international postgraduate students.
UKRI remain supportive of the Russell Group’s efforts in actively leading on collating information on the suitability of the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS) and we continue to feed in additional evidence that is brought to our attention. We recognise the importance of the ATAS security screening programme in protecting the outputs of the UK’s research base. However, it must operate efficiently and should not result in research being delayed.
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